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zkVMs¶
Last modified: 2026-10-27
Zero-knowledge virtual machines prove the execution of arbitrary programs compiled to a fixed instruction set, instead of hand-written circuits. See the concept note zkVM for how they compare to circuit DSLs. Note that many zkVMs target verifiable computation and succinctness, and are not zero-knowledge by default.
Contents¶
| Note | Status | Description |
|---|---|---|
| zkVM | concept | What a zkVM is, arithmetization, comparison with circuit DSLs |
| RISC-Zero | active | zkVM for RISC-V programs; uses FRI/STARK-based proving |
| SP1 | active | Succinct Labs' RISC-V zkVM; targets fast prover with Plonky3 backend |
| OpenVM | active | Modular zkVM framework with extensible instruction sets |
| Pico | active | Lightweight zkVM focused on performance and composability |
| Valida | deprecated | Early custom-ISA zkVM from Lita Foundation |
| Powdr | active | Modular ZKP stack; supports multiple backends (Halo2, eSTARK, Plonky3) |